Within the framework of total survey error, systematic bias – which negatively affects data quality - can occur either on the side of measurement or the side of representation (Grooves et al. 2004). We address measurement bias by asking ourselves whether the way how to present questions in online surveys affects response behaviour (Rossmann et al. 2018). As online surveys are mixed-device surveys (Lugtig & Toepoel 2015), questions are differently presented for mobile and non-mobile respondents.

To answer this question, we realised a survey experiment with split-half design in two recently conducted online surveys for students in summer term 2020 (n=29,389) and 2021 (n=10,044). As examples for cognitive demanding questions, we use two items: (i) time use (for private and study related issues) during semester and semester break as well as (ii) sources of income per month. Both are open questions. We regard them as cognitive demanding, because the retrospective information need to be retrieved without any pre-formulated categories being offered. The retrieval process is conducted only by accessible information. As mobile devices provide less display space, item grids are split into single parts. Thus, we expect that the given answers depend on the way the question is presented. To test our two assumptions, the item grid is differently split for mobile devices.

To check for differences in response behaviour, we first show descriptives for break-offs, response times and missing values for all groups. In a second step, we compare means and standard deviations between the control and experimental group. Our results indicate that there are differences in response behaviour depend on type of presenting the question. However, these patterns are quite mixed for the specific question asked.

Overall, our results have direct implications for designing mixed-device surveys for highly qualified. Especially among the group of students, using mobile devices for participating in surveys becomes more relevant. Thus, the question of how cognitive demanding questions are presented is of special importance for designing self-administered online surveys: the context affects answering behaviour. We close with reflecting on the generalizability of our findings.

Relevance and research question: One of the major sports events in the world is the World Cup. This study examines the effect of enjoyment from and transportation into the broadcasts events, on using social media as a second screen. The use of second screens- watching television while using another digital device- usually a smartphone or tablet, may be considered a type of “media multitasking” as it affects the viewers’ attention, the information they receive, and their social conduct during the broadcast.

We assumed that a negative correlation will be found between the level of enjoyment from watching the sports event and the second screen usage during the broadcasts. Moreover, we assumed that the correlation between enjoyment and second screen usage will be mediated by transporting into the broadcasts.

Method and data: An online representative sample of the Israeli population was obtained during the final ten days of the World Cup, from the quarterfinals to the final. 454 respondents completed the questionnaire.

Results: Findings revealed that using social media while watching the World Cup broadcasts, is strongly correlated with the enjoyment from watching the broadcasts. Thus, as assumed, the use of social media for non-game-related usages declined as the enjoyment from the broadcast increased (r = –.35, p < .001). Contrary to our first hypothesis, the use of social media for game-related usages increased as the enjoyment from the broadcast increased (r = .31, p < .001). Examining the role of transportation as a mediated variable revealed that the more enjoyment participants experienced, the more transported they were into the game, which leads to a significant rise in their game-related usage of social media, and a significant decline in their non-game-related usages of it [F(3, 439)= 42.80, p < .001, R2= 16.32%].

Added value: The function of social media as a second screen depends on the relevancy of the usages to the broadcast. These findings contribute to our understanding of the effects of psychological factors (enjoyment and transportation) on second screen usage in the context of live television broadcasts of major sports events.

Relevance & Research Question: The coronavirus crisis is accompanied by an immense corona media hype. Unfortunately, conflicting information also circulated from people who were actually managing the crisis (e.g. regarding a curfew, positive benefit of face masks). This might have created insecurity about the credibility of information around the pandemic. Unsurprisingly, since insecurity may lead to misinformation being believed, the "digital crisis team" in Austria uncovered 150 different Fake-News stories within a week in March 2020. Problematic here is, that social media users are known as ambivalent about the usefulness of fact-checking and verification services. However, according to current knowledge, trust in the source seems to be the most important factor for the spread of Fake-News anyway. Nonetheless, the question arises: To what extent does the (in)certainty of recognizing Fake-News force or inhibit the spread of Fake-News?

Methods & Data: To answer the research question, a scale was developed to capture knowledge-based (in)certainty in recognizing Fake-News. The indicators measuring the certainty of recognizing true or untrue headlines were derived based on a content analysis of 119 newspaper reports (March to December 2020) on Fake-News. In addition, a single indicator was used for self-assessment of this. Data were collected with both a calibration (student sample) and a validation sample (n=201).

Results: A measurement instrument to capture knowledge-based (in)certainty was developed. The reliability of the scale is acceptable, but expandable. It depends on the selection of the headlines on the one hand, and in the response scale on the other. The test of construct validity shows that both self-assessed (in)ability and knowledge-based (in)certainty play a subordinate role in the forwarding of Fake-News. Although the former shows significant influences depending on the motive for forwarding Fake-News.

Added Value: Based on the results, more in-depth research is now possible to elicit why knowledge and self-assessment on Fake-News detection skills contributes less to Fake-News spread/stopping than might be assumed.